1. Question: Explain the differences between clustered and non-clustered indexes in SQL Server. When would you use each one?

Answer:

• Clustered Index: A clustered index determines the physical order of data in a table. Each table can have only one clustered index, and it directly affects the way data is stored on disk. When a table has a clustered index, the data rows are physically sorted based on the indexed column(s). Clustered indexes are ideal for columns that are frequently used in range-based queries or when you need to retrieve data in a specific order.
• Non-Clustered Index: A non-clustered index creates a separate structure containing the indexed column(s) and a pointer to the corresponding data row. A table can have multiple non-clustered indexes. Non-clustered indexes are beneficial when you have frequent searches on columns that are not part of the clustered index or when you need to cover certain queries with included columns.

2. Question: What are the ACID properties in the context of database transactions? How does SQL Server ensure transactional consistency?

Answer: The ACID properties are essential characteristics of database transactions:

• Atomicity: Ensures that a transaction is treated as a single unit of work, either fully completed or fully rolled back if an error occurs.
• Consistency: Guarantees that the database remains in a consistent state before and after a transaction.
• Isolation: Ensures that each transaction is executed independently and is not affected by other concurrent transactions.
• Durability: Guarantees that the changes made by a committed transaction are permanent and will survive system failures.

SQL Server ensures transactional consistency through the use of a write-ahead log (WAL) mechanism. When a transaction is committed, the changes are first recorded in the transaction log before being applied to the database. This approach allows SQL Server to recover the database to a consistent state in case of a system failure or crash.

3. Question: Describe the purpose of the SQL Server Agent in SQL Server. What types of tasks can you schedule using the SQL Server Agent?

Answer: SQL Server Agent is a component in SQL Server that enables the scheduling and automation of various administrative tasks and jobs. It helps manage tasks such as database backups, database maintenance, report generation, data synchronization, and more. SQL Server Agent provides a user interface for creating and managing jobs, schedules, and alerts.

Some examples of tasks that can be scheduled using SQL Server Agent include:

• Regular database backups.
• Index maintenance and statistics updates.
• Execution of stored procedures or T-SQL scripts.
• SSIS package execution for ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) processes.
• Replication tasks to synchronize data between servers.

4. Question: What is the purpose of the NOLOCK hint in SQL Server, and when should you use it? What are the potential risks associated with using it?

Answer: The NOLOCK hint, also known as the READUNCOMMITTED hint, is used in SELECT statements to allow reading data from tables without acquiring shared locks. It provides a way to perform dirty reads, which means reading data that is currently being modified by other transactions.

You should use the NOLOCK hint when you prioritize query performance over data consistency, especially in scenarios where real-time data is required, and minor data inconsistencies can be tolerated.

However, using the NOLOCK hint can lead to potential risks, such as:

• Dirty reads: Reading uncommitted data can result in inconsistent and incorrect results if the other transaction rolls back its changes.
• Non-repeatable reads: Data read using NOLOCK might change between consecutive reads, leading to inconsistent results.
• Phantom reads: Rows might be inserted or deleted by other transactions while a query is running, resulting in unexpected additional rows or missing rows in the result set.

5. Question: Explain the differences between the CHAR and VARCHAR data types in SQL Server. When would you choose one over the other?

Answer:

• CHAR: The CHAR data type is used for fixed-length character strings. It requires a predefined length, and any value stored in a CHAR column will be padded with spaces to match the defined length if the value is shorter.
• VARCHAR: The VARCHAR data type is used for variable-length character strings. It allows storing data with a varying length up to the defined maximum length without padding.

You would choose CHAR when:

• The length of the data is always consistent and fixed.
• You need to enforce a specific length for each value in the column.

You would choose VARCHAR when:

• The length of the data varies, and you want to save storage space by not padding the values with extra spaces.
• The data can be of different lengths, and you don’t want to enforce a fixed size for the column.

Remember, while VARCHAR saves space, it may have a slight performance overhead due to variable-length data storage.